Confucianism, the philosophical and ethical system named after and based on the
teachings of Confucius, the Chinese philosopher who lived between 551 and 479
BCE, is presented in a detailed and comprehensive manner in professor Xinzhong Yao's book, An
Introduction to Confucianism.
The work covers not
only the history and evolution of Confucianism, but also its teachings, the way
of life it promotes, representing a valuable guide for those who want to live
by the ideas and principles of Confucius.
Just like the Bible is
the manual of all Christians, professor Xinzhong
Yao's work could be considered a manual, a useful guide for all Confucianists,
the go-to resource for those trying to fiind their path to peace and happiness.
As the author himself warns, Confucianism is not just a tradition, it is
a way of life, a path towards physical and spiritual accomplishments whose
following requires full commitment and desire to improve oneself. The harmony,
the peace and the fulfillment awaiting those who follow this path can only be
achieved through continuous learning, sacrifice, balance and virtuosity.
An Introduction to
Confucianism makes it easy to understand the Confucian
tradition and ethics through its well organized content, structured on five chapters. The
first one defines Confucianism and presents it characteristics. It focuses on
the philosopher and on the way he contributed to the tradition bearing his
name, but also covers the origins and the nature
of the Confucian tradition of the West.
According to Confucian understanding, the world is
sustained by, and structured around, three ultimate powers (sanji), often
referred to as universe's powers (sancai). These are heaven (tian), earth (di)
and humans (rens), and they work together, making it possible for Heaven, Earth
and humans to be the origin of everything (139). Heaven is the one that
generates things, Earth is the one that nourishes them, and man is the one that
perfects them.
The second chapter offers a historical perspective of Confucianism's
evolution, presenting the major schools and the leaders that made the
development and spreading of Confucianism possible, from its very beginnings to
our days. It analyzes the common and distinctive elements of each school, their
heritage, considering them necessary steps in the evolution and transformation
of Confucianism. Geographically, it covers mostly the contribution of the
Chinese, Korean and Japanese Confucian leaders and scholars, overlooking areas like
Southeast Asia and Vietnam.
The third chapter presents the Confucian doctrine, and
its Three Ways: Heaven's Way, Humans's Way and Harmony's Way. Heaven's way is the
most important one, the Confucian path towards the metaphysical, the transcendental,
the ethical, the natural, the religious and the political. Humans' Way ensures
the understanding and implementation of Heaven's Way by humans, modelling human
nature, teaching moral virtues, promoting social integration, the necessity of
political order and of embracing one's destiny.
The Confucian belief relies on the idea that Heaven's Way
can only be fulfilled if it is understood and pursued consciously by people
throughout their life. Harmony's Way involves harmony between human actions and
heaven, between conscious behavior and the environment, between individuals, families
and society.
Harmony is more than a central concept, it is the
spirit, the power and the life of Confucianism, the reality and the ideal of
the Confucian believers. It is achieved by unity between humanity and heaven,
it is a stage in which people bring humanity order and peace through their
behavior.
Harmony is also conditioned by a continuous
relationship between the human and the spiritual, body and mind, matter and
form, present and past. It provides a sense of security, continuity and eternity.
It points to the transformation of the temporal and of the eternal, of the
finite and of the infinite, of the sacred and of the secular, transformation
that can be observed in every ritual carried out consciently.
The fourth chapter covers religious practices and rituals
that have become part of the Confucian tradition. It shows how the Confucian
values have found their place in the lives of the Chinese, Japanese and Koreans,
and how the people in these countries inevitably come under the influence of
Confucianism. Their thinking is shaped, guided by Confucian values, no matter
if they have studied Confucianism or not.
The chapter begins by investigating the Confucian
doctrine influences religious practices and rituals and how these practices and
rituals reflect the humanistic and rational ideals that the Confucian masters
propagate. Confucian practices take the form not only of cults and religious
worship, but also of the one of a kind way in which Confucianism embraces
self-improvement and learning as its spiritual path.
The Confucian spirituality bears the influence of the Confucianism's
interaction with other traditions, like Buddhism, Daoism or Christianity. This interaction
has lead to the transformation of Confucianism and of other traditions alike.
The fifth chapter traces the evolution of Confucianism
and deals with the problems that modern Confucian scholars face. It examines
the ‘three generations of modern new Confucians’, as well as the new challenges
regarding the Confucian theories and practices, and the responses to these
challenges are investigated.
Having survived the influence of the western culture
and that of the Communist revolution, Confucianism has returned to life,
turning into a real force that motivates modernization and acts as a foundation
for the economics, politics and social life of East Asia.
Numerous scholars claim that some modern behavior
patterns rely on the Confucian heritage and, through them, Confucianism is heading
for a new age. According to them, the creativity associated with Confucianism
is not limited only to Eastern Asia, but offers answers to universal and eternal
problems and concerns of the humanity.
After critically examining suggestions and facts,
after weighing the efforts of the modern eastern and western scholars to
consolidate Confucianism, the author concludes that Confucianism is under no
circumstances a tradition of the past. It is a revived tradition that has gained
the strength necessary to offer values and guidance to those who want to live a
healthy, harmonious life in the modern age.
The Confucian
Way of Life
For Confucianists, Heaven means more than just the
opposite of Earth, it represents the entire universe, the material and
immaterial world, Nature and divinity at the same time. The term is often used
referring to a Supreme Being, an anthropomorphic Lord ruling Heaven andgoverning
both the material and the spiritual world.
From a moral perspective, Heaven is the source of both
the ethic principles people should live by, and of the sanctions they should
expect when failing to apply those principles. It can be identified with
European philosophy's Natural Law. Heaven's Way, with all its meanings and principles,
can be considered the foundation of the Confucian views regarding the universe,
the world and the human society, embracing, at the same time, a religious
dimension.
Heaven is the
divine being who controls and determines the human world (Yao 143), the
creator of humanity, its observer, and judge, similar to Christians' God. It is
the "creator of humans",
whose spirits return to it upon their death. Those who do not obey his word
receive their punishment sooner or later, and those who live by his teachings
will be rewarded at a certain point. Offending Heaven or violating its moral
principles is the greatest wrongdoing one could be responsible of (Yao 146).
Heaven's Way, with all its values and implications,
can be understood by continuous studies and efforts. By learning as much as
possible about the world around them and about themselves, people can improve
themselves, give up any vices and vanitudes, and live a balanced and peaceful
life.
This kind of education and instruction will lead them to
truth, goodness and perfection, to sincerity and personal integrity, responsibility
and family loyalty, sound commonsense and communal reciprocity. "The Way of Heaven signifies morality,
and to follow the Way of Heaven is to lead a virtuous life" (Yao 148).
Confucians do not care about the differences between
this world and the next, they do not care about damnation or salvation, but
they strive to close the gap between the non-human and the human, between those
who have been educated to adopt proper behaviour and those who have not been.
That is why self-cultivation and education stand are
the main focus of the Human Way, the only way to exploit the potential of each
person to grow and differentiate oneself from animals. Cultivation involves
preservation, and preservation means developing moral senses, becoming fully
human, but never abandoning or neglecting, behavior patterns specific to deficient
characters that are not far from the animal kind. In Confucianism, the virtuos
and the moral is identified with the religious or the transcendental (Yao 155).
Sacrifice and religious
rituals are an important part of the Confucian tradition as well. Offering
sacrifices to Heaven and the ancestors was believed to be of the greatest
significance for earning the legitimacy and power to rule. In time, this
practice lead to the understanding that power and abilities should also be
cultivated, thus becoming "a
moral-making property of a person" able to give that person power and
influence over the others and, in some cases, even over nonhuman surroundings
(155).
Thus, religious rituals turn
into behavior codes and a sense of propriety. They are necessary, not only at
the moment of the sacrifice, but in one's everyday life and not only for the
ruler, but also the average person as well.
Confucians have developed an
understanding of the source and nature of political power according to which "a good ruler is
the one who cultivates his character sincerely, performs rituals reverentially,
and accumulates good deeds earnestly" (155). This way, propriety rules become
"imperatives of conduct",
and their observance is internalised as moral quality, while exteriorly
exercised practice equals an interior spiritual journey.
The ethical and the moral in
Confucianism as a tradition have become synonym with the the transcendental and
the religious. Virtue has turned from a quality into the ability to improve oneself
and others. Being a virtuous person is not the privilege of rulers or superior
ministers, but a mandatory condition for personal transition from the
uncivilized, crude man to a civilized and cultivated person, or "from a being of sensation to a person of
virtue" (Yao 157).
And, yes, the Confucian
tradition does take into account natural weaknesses like the preference for sexual
enjoyment, the pursue of wealth and the difficulties that surpassing these
weaknesses involves. Man has what it takes to be good, to improve himself and
become virtuos, but this substrate is overwhelmed by physical needs and must be
discovered and nurtured.
There are two methods to
achieve this and Pursue the Way of Heaven. "One is to observe the principles by which everything exists and every
being lives. The other way is to contemplate on our own heart/mind"
(158). Thus, reflecting and meditating
on the internal world enables us to understand and use our potential.
Confucianism accepts the
notion of evil as well, but with no ontological or metaphysical reality
attached to it. Evil is just a moral concept, designates a situation in which
the physical and moral activities of a person are conducted in the wrong direction.
Evil, just like good, is a term referring to the moral character of a person. Confucians
focus on the importance of knowing what is good and what is evil, how to do
good and how to remove evil.
Family is a central concept
in the Confucian tradition as well, with a tendency towards patriarchy.
Children should be raised in piety, taught to obey their parents above all, to
love their mothers and follow their fathers. Men and women are taught to divide
work within the household, to avoid violent conflicts and to strive together to
improve themselves and raise their children in virtue.
It is impossible not to
notice the importance granted to filial piety, but. It is suggested that being
older and more experienced, the parent, especially the father, knows better,
and it is the son's duty to obey and follow on his footsteps. The father on the
other hand, should be kind and affectionate to his child. Families should stick
together, support one another and help one another on the path to Heaven and
Harmony (Yao 183-184).
Ritual understanding and spiritual cultivation
practice underline the uniqueness of the Confucian religiosity. Confucianism's
co-existence with other traditions has enabled its adepts to engage in dynamic
dialogues with many different doctrines, enriching their religio-ethics and cultivating
a syncretic culture. Their rituals combine music and dance with offerings and
sacrifices, with the purpose to please ancestors and spirits, expressing commitment
and gratitude.
During rituals, "faults are repented, confidence gained, and happiness and success
secured" (Yao 192). Sacrifice is not imposed from the outside, but
stems from the heart, and only "those
of virtue can fulfil this condition and fully display the meaning and purpose
of ritual and sacrifice" (194). While sacrifice is believed to bring
about luck, material gains, physical longevity or spiritual protection,
personal gain is not a goal for Confucianists.
They should be offered without immediate and
egocentric interests in mind, rituals being just a manifestation of virtue and
of the meaning of life. In the end, with patience and perseverance, by living
humbly and virtuously, by continuously striving to improve oneself and help
others improve, one will attain harmony.
Confucianism is tradition, philosophy, religion and
way of life at the same time, too complex to describe and explain in a limited
number of words, and, as professor Xinzhong Yao shows, it is in constant
evolution and development, adjusting to the new times and changing to meet the
needs and expectations of its adepts. In order to understand it, one must
adehere to its teachings, embrace it and live it, get a taste of the virtues and
harmony it promotes.
