The Ramifications of Buying Solely American Products

Will This Help the American Economy and Serve the Citizens' Interests at The Same Time?

America, just as most other countries around the globe, was severely affected by the global recession, and everyone, everywhere, found a more or less effective solution to the problems experienced, like unemployment, expensive living and not only.

The solution that was embraced with enthusiast by many officials, personalities and common people alike was to start buying solely American products. But, while this strategy, applied when given a choice, could be helpful for the economy and even for people's budget and well being, rejecting foreign products at all cost will not help anyone.

On one hand, certain foods and items are not produced in the United States due to the climatic and soil conditions or to the lack of resources, or are more expensive than imported competitive products of the same quality, case in which buying them would be detrimental to the consumers' interests.

On the other hand, importing and exporting products does have its benefits for the economy and, as proven with the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, neglecting these benefits and ceasing imports could cause more harm than good.

Buying American as a Trend

While the trend of buying only American products had begun long before, it gained an enormous popularity starting with January 2009, when the House of Representative passed the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act.

It was a plan meant to stimulate national economy, covering no less than 700 pages. One small section of this plan drew the attention of the entire world, by imposing that the public projects to be funded use only steel and iron from the country's production.

There was another similar but less notorious provision referring to the uniforms of the Homeland Security Department. When it was proven that these provisions would have a negative impact on the country's foreign policy, trade obligations, jobs and not only (Hufbauer and Schott), the media and several movements began to urge citizens to support the country's economy by buying only goods produced locally and nationally (Martinez, 9).

The environmental movement, for example, encourages people to choose their food based on geographic considerations, as a way to oppose transportation on long distances and, implicitly, greenhouse gas emissions.

The adepts of the food-security movement assure that buying American will provide access to safer and healthier food, more appropriate for the American consumers and the culture they were raised in.

There are also international movements opposing the domination of multinational corporations and mass food production, like the Slow Food movement, who militate for traditionally grown, produced and prepared food.

With many principles in common with the Slow Food movement, the local food movement encourages consumers to support local farmers and track down the origins of their food (Martinez, 9).

The idea of buying solely American products as a solution to the problems of the country's economy is most fervently supported by the "Buy American" movement who, according to Macionis, brings together workers and manufacturers with the purpose of persuading consumers to buy products made in America (16).

Why Buying American Products Means Supporting the Country's Economy

According to the adepts of the "Buy American" movement, imports and the deindustrialization of the country's economy were the main causes for the decreasing number of jobs, and there are figures supporting this allegation.

Dudley showed that the number of jobs in the field of manufacturing decreased by more than 850,000 in 1988 (408). On one hand, this happened because, with the increasing number of imported products available at lower prices and preferred by consumers, many local factories and plants were forced to close their gates.

On the other hand, many American corporations chose to have their products manufactured in countries like Mexico, China, India and Vietnam, where work force was and still is much cheaper. According to Dudley, 1,800 manufacturing plants were started in Mexico (407) by U.S corporations aiming to increase their profits.

These corporations choose countries like Mexico for the resources, cheap labor, and wide markets they make available. At the same time, this strategy allows them to decrease their tax liability and to move money from one country to the other, taking advantage of currency rate fluctuations (Mucionis, 276).

Some may argue that these corporations create jobs, or that Americans should not be selfish and allow other countries to grow economically. Macionis concluded, based on the research of dependency theorists like Vaughn (1978), Walterstein (1979), Delcroix and Ragin (1981) or Bergesen (983), that multinational investments create only few jobs, they inhibit local industry and they encourage developing countries to export their products rather than sell them locally (276).

Leaving the low number of jobs available aside, another consequence of deindustrialization are the poorer working condition. All manufacturers do their best to reduce their costs, and in order to succeed, they often neglect their employees' safety, well being and interests.

They can afford to do so because they know their employees will have a hard time finding better paid jobs or better working conditions. Besides, there are more and more immigrants willing to fulfill vacant positions for lower salaries. Harrison and Bluestone, the authors of The Great U-Turn, report a dramatic decline in number of well-paid jobs throughout the last four decades (Dudley, 404).

In The Falling Rate in Post War U.S. Economy, Moseley discusses a significant increase of unproductive labor between 1950 and 1980, from 46% to 78%. Already described above through lower salaries and poorer working conditions, unproductive labor is considered by Moseley responsible for the decrease of profits in the American economy (cited by Wolff, 1).

Job instability, poor working conditions and low salaries hurt the economy, and when this happens, no one benefits. When plants and factories close and people lose their jobs, buying power decreases, companies go out of business, which, in turn, causes loss of jobs and decrease in buying power. The long-term result is a continuous cycle of deprivation that could end with mass poverty, unless immediate, drastic measures are taken at all levels.

These measures involve that each citizen starts buying products manufactured in America. It is important to make the difference between products manufactured abroad under American brands, products assembled in America from components manufactured abroad, and products manufactured in America, using American labor and resources. Obviously, buying products in the latter category is the strategy that would benefit the country's economy the most.

Roger Simmermaker is maybe one of the most fervent supporters of this idea, and he has gained some notorious supporters himself. Former president Bill Clinton for example, considers Simmermaker's initiative as a way to support American manufacturers and, implicitly, the creation of valuable products, the rise of the employment rate and the workers' loyalty towards their employers and towards the communities they belong to.

In an article in New York Times, Simmermaker assures that buying American can save the country's economy. If every citizen makes this commitment, they will help create more jobs. "More U.S. manufacturing jobs not only reduce the unemployment rate, but also expand the tax base to pay for benefits". He explains with statistics that every job created will support other jobs, in fields like food and restaurants, parts manufacturing, health and beauty, entertainment, etc.

According to him, in the last decade, the country had a cumulative trade deficit of $2 trillion only with China. If that money had been spent or the products had been manufactured in America, starting from a conservative tax rate of 30 %, millions of jobs would have been created and the national revenue would have reached $600. He urges readers to buy American in order to reduce trade deficit, increase the tax base and stimulate economic growth.

Buying American, in his vision and that of many others, means hating, ignoring, avoiding import products. Books and websites were created to teach people how to read the labels of the products they buy in order to make sure they only by American, what brands to look for and where to buy from.

Buy American: The Untold Story of Economic Nationalism, by Dana Frank, How Americans Can Buy American: The Power of Consumer Patriotism, by Roger Simmermaker and Buying America Back by Alan Uke are just a few examples.

But, most of the above presented ideas and books overlook the interdependency of imports and exports, the positive ramifications of imports and exports on the American economy and the immediate consequences of buying solely American products on the consumers.

Local Markets, Imports and Exports, and Why Buying Solely American Will Not Work

In the first half of the 20^th century, nearly half of the Americans population lived on farms, but their number had already decreased to 1% by 2000. Most of the food consumed was grown locally, saw no processing besides canning, salting, dehydration and smoking, was rarely packaged and was bought directly from farmers, who rarely traveled more than a day to take their products to the market.

After WW II, national and global food sources began to prevail over local ones, supported by regional and global specialization, the decrease in transportation costs and the improvements in refrigerated trucking. This made it possible that perishable foods be shipped over longer distances faster, in better conditions and at lower prices.

Land and climate, coupled with technology, helped create global and regional specialization patterns. Fruits and nuts began to be produced in California, Florida and several other states that provided adequate climate and soil conditions.

Other aspects this geographic concentration took into account were the feasible alternatives available for commodities that could no longer be produced competitively by local farmers. When the cotton industry crashed in the South, for example, the broiler industry took its place and expanded based on production contracts.

Slowly but surely, food imports began to grow, favored by consumer demand, the increasing number of immigrants, the progresses made in goods shipping and storage and the free-trade agreements implemented.

Some of the imported foods competed with those produced locally and nationally, while others complemented them (seasonal fruits and vegetables began to be available year round. Tropical fruits and derived products that cannot be profitably produced in the United States, like pineapples, bananas, papayas and mangos received a greater demand from consumers, causing a significant growth of the country's imports (Martinez, 8).

At the same time, many U.S. farmers began to export their products, thus succeeding to obtain higher prices and maintain their economical stability despite the demand changes registered on the local market. For example, the consumption of grapefruit and derived products diminished significantly throughout the last 2 decades, but the producers survived by exporting. If one third of the country's fresh grapefruit production was exported in the 1980s, more than half of it was being exported around 2005.

In the USDA report prepared by Steve Martinez and his team, it is shown that consumers manifest a growing interest in foods produced locally, considering them safer, healthier, cheaper and of higher quality. The same tendency has been noticed in other fields as well, so it is safe to say that, when given a choice, consumers do support the economy and buy American products. However, import products are necessary as well, especially those for which there is no local alternative, so buying solely American products would not be feasible.

Both imports and exports are beneficial for the country's economy, because both importers and exporters pay taxes and create jobs, the former category in transportation, packaging and selling, the latter in production and manufacturing. America lacks some of the resources necessary to meet consumer demand, but has other resources in excess, and imports and exports help create a balance between the two and meet both consumers' demands and producers' needs. 

Besides, as shown by Hufbauer and Schott, in their analysis of the Buy American Act, imports and exports go hand in hand. Provisions like Buy American would not only violate the country's trade obligations and damage its reputation, but even cost jobs, if other countries responded in the same way. Of course, some may say that this would only happen if official measures are taken, but nothing bad can happen when common people join forces to inhibit imports.

However, Ahmed Shawki argues that such protectionist initiatives will not work, and inhibiting imports will not create more jobs. According to him, all the "Buy American" craze is a mere attempt of diverting responsibility from the government and the authorities, and it should be opposed by trade unions and socialists.

He explains that the claims according to which recession is caused by imports have no factual support and that the increase in imports is just a natural consequence of the global capitalist economy's integration and interdependence. He argues that exports depend on imports, and uses a study of the Economic Development and Cooperation Organization according to which 20% of the jobs depend on exports to justify his position. Cutting imports from Western Europe countries or Japan would only cause those countries to react in the same way and thousands of jobs would be lost.

Countries depend on exports, so throwing up quotas and tariffs would only increase unemployment and deepen the recession. Besides, it is every day more difficult to tell which products are imported and which are American. As Shawki shows, a great part of the Japanese automotive industry is owned by Americans, considering that 34.2 % of Isuzu and 5.2% of Suzuki is owned by General Motors, 25 % of Toyo Kogya (Mazda) is owned by Ford, and 15% of Mitsubishi is owned by Chrysler.

Not even the cars in the U.S. are genuine American products, as, while the assembly takes part in the country, most of the parts are imported. The engines, ball joints, transaxles and transmissions come from plants owned by American companies in Mexico. Even the vice-president of Ford declared on one occasion: "We don't consider ourselves basically an American company. We carry a lot of flags". Before creating new jobs in the auto industry, preventing imports would raise the price of the American cars and, thus, lower the already low living standards of the U.S. workers (Shawki).

Diminishing steel import would have similar negative consequences. Shawki shows that while the country's steel imports dropped from 21.1 million tons in 1978 to 19.9 million tons in 1981, 75,580 people working in the steel industry lost their jobs, representing 16.5 % of the overall workforce.

Buying only American products from a certain category may temporarily maintain or even raise the number of jobs in the respective sector, but it will raise the unemployment rate in a different sector, negatively affecting the economy and, indirectly, the very sector those products belong to.

The most relevant example is found, again, in the steel industry, whose two decades of protectionism only increased the profits of the major players. Not only that no jobs were created, but, due to the high price of the American steel, the car prices increased, and so did the auto industry slump.

Of course, these are large scale effects, what would only appear if everyone stopped buying import products, which is unlikely to happen, but the basic idea is the same: the economy crisis is not caused by imports, and boycotting imports will not end it.

And the list of arguments against buying only American products does not end here. In an article titled The Stupidity of "Buy American", John Stossel, notorious author and television host, citing reputable economists, sustains that people should buy the cheapest products rather than agreeing to pay more only to buy American products.

This way, they can use the price difference to buy products they would otherwise not afford. Inherently, some of those products will be American and will create jobs. Using less labor and fewer resources to produce or buy one thing leaves more for other things. If buying import products helps people save money, they should continue to do so, because this way, they will be able to produce more locally and spend more on other American products.

Stossel agrees with Henry Hazlitt that Americans should look beyond immediate beneficiaries and effects, otherwise, they risk accomplishing the exact opposite of what they intended.

As for those who complain about poor working conditions and low salaries, they exist because there are people willing to accept them. Those people accept them because, for them, what others consider abuse and exploitation, is a Godsend, the only chance they have to support themselves and their families. They would not be better off without those jobs, and the little money they make, they invest it in the same American economy everyone wants to see prosper.

Should Americans Support the Economy by Buying Solely American Products?

As shown above, and as concluded by Steve Martinez in the above-cited USDA report, buying American products could be beneficial for the economy. However, as shown by Stossel, people would have to afford to buy only American and to be able to find all the products they need.

The problem is more complex than buying or not buying solely American products. Some of the import products people buy are simply not produced in the country, and it would be unfair and useless to ask or expect people to stop drinking coffee, tequila, using spices, eating Chinese food or wearing diamonds in order to prove their support for their country's economy.

Some simply cannot start their day without their cup of coffee, others rely on spices for their diet, and there are people for whom Chinese food is a treat, a way to relax, to escape routine and reward themselves after a day's hard work.

Buying solely American products would mean depriving themselves of certain pleasures, and it is not like their effort will save the country. On the contrary, it could negatively affect their productivity, their health and their mood.

Then, the decision of buying a product should be the result of analyzing several criteria, like quality, cost and satisfaction degree. It is a great idea to buy American products when they deliver the same quality as import products, at the same price, but not when the price is the same and the quality of the American products is lower or when the quality is the same, but the American products are more expensive.

In the end, people would be much better off buying import products and stimulating the foods and restaurants industry by taking their loved ones out to dinner or buying a cake on their way home, to give just two examples.

To conclude, buying solely American products does not necessarily support the country's economy, but it could diminish buying power and consumer satisfaction. The best thing people can do is to weigh their options carefully when buying, and to choose those American products that deliver at least the same quality at the same price with import products.

If they want more buyers, manufacturers should make available better and cheaper products, rather than waiting to be supported and paid more for the sole reason that they are doing business in America.

Works Cited

Hufbauer, Gary Clyde, and Jeffrey J. Schott. 'Buy American: Bad For Jobs, Worse For Reputation'.Policy Brief P B 0 9 – 2. Peterson Institute for International Economy: 2009. Web. 15 Jan. 2015.

Macionis, John J. Society, the Basics. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Prentince-Hall, 1996.

Martinez, Steve, et al. Local Food Systems: Concepts, Impacts, and Issues, ERR 97, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, May 2010.

Shawki, Ahmed Shawki. 'Don't Buy "Buy American"'. Socialist Worker 2011. Web. 15 Jan. 2015.

Simmermaker, Roger. 'How Americans Can Buy American'. Howtobuyamerican.com. N.p., 2013. Web. 16 Jan. 2015.

Simmermaker, Roger. 'Why Buying American Can Save The U.S. Economy'. New York Times 2011. Web. 16 Jan. 2015.

Stossel, John. 'The Stupidity Of "Buy American"'. Reason 2011. Web. 15 Jan. 2015.

Wolff, Edward N. "Is a Discussion of Unproductive Labor Still Productive?" Science & Society. 58 (1994): 204-210.

Nassim Nicholas Taleb's The Black Swan. The Impact of the Highly Improbable

Nassim Nicholas Taleb's book has drawn a lot of attention since its publishing, especially due to the bold, revolutionary ideas it promotes. It goes from general, psychological and philosophical considerations to a rather technical thesis, challenging the statistical bell-curve's usefulness.

Taleb’s arguments follow two main directions: that there is much more randomness than people generally admit, and that dealing with it is troublesome because of the way people think. According to him, people should free themselves from the chains represented by statistics and probabilities, by what they think they know, and should give the impossible and luck, a chance.

There are numerous examples of success stories that start with a mere accident, of people who thrive out of pure luck (common sight in Extremistan), and also numerous stories of people who struggle to be in control of everything and never exceed their condition (the people of Mediocristan).

The world should give black swans, and the highly improbable, a chance, should focus on knowing "how to" rather than "what" moves the world. What would that bring about? Probably a wave of uncontrollable consequences, but that is not necessarily a bad thing, is it?  

Summary

The black swan referred to in the title is the one found in Australia, defying all previous observations according to which all swans were white. It is used to prove that induction can never bring certainty, as one exception is enough to invalidate the rule.

For the author, a black swan is an outlier, an exception, an improbability with extreme impact for which, after it happens, people create doubtful explanations (p. xviii). Relevant examples would be the “Lebanese paradise” destruction after 1975, the crash of the stock market in 1987, the USSR breakup, the 9/11 terrorist attack, and the internet's development. Some black swans have positive outcomes, but others do not.

Taleb believes the world we live in is one full of black swans with extreme consequences. People, no matter their background, do not usually accept the existence of realities like Extremistan or Mediocristan (p. 36), as the author calls them.

In the former, rewards are huge and have nothing to do with time, skill and effort, but a lot to do with luck and inequality rules. In the latter, a dull, predictable reality, jobs are rewarded based on the time, skills and effort invested, and extremes are rare, allowing a certain measure of equality.

The problem is that social sciences refuse to accept that Extremistan exists and outliers are important for society. Scientists and experts in all fields overestimate their knowledge and overlook the importance of what they do not know.

They give people the illusion that they understand, by selectively collecting and corroborating evidence or dead thinkers' thoughts (p. xxvii), while the real problem is how they think. People love stories, the “narrative fallacy” - believing in a less random world than the world really is, the “ludic fallacy” – believing that games approximate life, whereas they do not (p. 127).

Once they adopt a theory, people have a hard time giving it up when confronted with new evidence. They overrate facts relying on general knowledge, have a too narrow focus and depend too much on self-proclaimed experts.

Taleb considers that real experts have knowhow, and grain inspectors, chess masters, test pilots and physicists are the best examples. Those who possess know-what, like judges, stockbrokers, intelligence analysts, financial forecasters or political scientists are not real experts. He appreciates that military planners are the most knowledgeable, as they take into account the “unknown” (p. 127).

He offers many examples to show that people do not like to leave anything to chance. He sarcastically quotes financial press headlines interpreting unforeseen market shifts after they had happened. When forecasts turn out right, expertise is used as an explanation, but, when they are wrong, the experts are not to be blamed, or they have "nearly" nailed it.

Taleb turns to research to prove that, in economics and politics, not even the greatest experts, with their sophisticated analysis tools, can offer more accurate predictions than undergraduates using simple methods.

He states that many discoveries are made accidentally, by people looking for completely different things, and he gives the example of penicillin, laser or Viagra, with the latter designed to regulate blood pressure. He adds that technology adventurers strive due to the fact that common people worry about consequences (p.170).

The author declares himself against Platonicity, against people's tendency to mistake maps for territories, to focus on "forms" rather than on the reality. He proposes skeptic idols like Hume, Hayek, Popper and others. He agrees with Popper’s idea that the best way to verify a theory is to consider it false, and condemns the tendency of using the lack of evidence against a theory as an argument to prove its validity.

Evaluation

For Taleb, luck prevails over talent and hard word. People should accept it and move on. Talented people should focus on working in their field of interest, but remain alert to unexpected discoveries. It is alright to plan small matters, but bigger ones should leave room for trial and error.

When planning, one should focus not on probability, but on the gravity of the potential consequences, no matter how improbable. When investing, 85% of one's money should go into something risk-free, like Treasury bills, and only the remaining 15% should be scattered as venture capital.

Life should be seen as a derivatives series. By cutting negative exposure, people actually limit their vulnerability to the unknown (p. 329). The author advises them to consider as many opinions as possible, to go to as many parties as possible.

The Black Swan abounds in practical, easy to follow, justified ideas. Although some of them seem difficult to accept at first sight, they are so well explained and exemplified that adhering to them becomes easy. Indeed, there are many success stories in which luck plays a greater part than one would like to admit.

The author believes that evolution was survival of the luckiest, rather than survival of the fittest. And he is right to point out to people's risk calculation weaknesses – after 9/11, many gave up air travel considering highways safer, but the number of accidents actually rose. Philosophical research is cited to show that facts can be coherently interpreted using opposite explanations.

Taleb invites his readers to be skeptical, so why not begin with his own book. Although supported by convincing, well researched arguments, his exposition itself shows some weaknesses, beginning with the very black swan.

The discovery of the creature he named his book after, although contradicting all previous sightings, had no dramatic consequences, or, at least, the author failed to discuss them, and no one attempted to justify it. Another debatable issue would be the use of fictional characters to sustain his point.

The author can only understand they are fictional by reading the footnotes, and this is not one would expect or want to find in a book on the perception and understanding of reality. The use of narrative in the first part of the book, mostly anecdotes, to fight narrative is not too helpful either, even though Taleb argues that a story is needed for displacing another one (p. 28).

A closer look at the facts leaves some question marks as well. For example, while he claims that experts are mostly wrong, or not better than undergraduates at forecasting, he neglects the fact that political scientists’ generally succeed to predict the following events quite well and offer their reader the odds, so that the latter can decide by themselves what to expect and take for granted.

Even the 9/11 example can be challenged, since several terrorists were imprisoned in America for previously attempting to blow up World Trade Center, and there were several clues that something was being planned.

The American Statistician published review articles in which four statisticians show that Taleb was “statistically reckless”, ignoring those who study extremes (Lund, 189). He disregarded Hume’s anti-induction principles by considering his biased and limited statisticians' sample enough to allow him to assess that all statisticians are Mediocristan dwellers (Westfall and Hilbe, 193).

Of course, the truth and practicality of some of Taleb's ideas cannot be denied. Actually, it is impossible not to notice the similarity between public administration and Mediocristan, as a world in which people conform themselves to policy positions imposed by the politicians they elected, action and moderate speech is expected from public service members, and people are not supposed to get rich during their career. But even public administration has its share of thinking practitioners, it is a practical world in which people regard new theories with suspicion and hold success stories in high esteem.

Conclusion

While the book's intended audience ranges from academics and people with an already solid educational background to people activating in public sector innovation and administration, as indicated by the numerous notes (18 pages) and bibliography entries (27) from literature, philosophy, social sciences and finances, the accessible language makes it an interesting reading for anyone.

A detailed review of Taleb's work would require analysis of all of the facts and ideas presented, but one thing can be concluded based on the above observations: reading it can provide immense value to the reader, as long as it is regarded with the very skepticism the author recommends. Nothing should be taken for granted, and this book makes no exception.

References

Lund, Robert. 'Revenge Of The White Swan'. The American Statistician 61.3 (2007): 189-192. Web.

Taleb, Nassim Nicholas. 'Black Swans And The Domains Of Statistics'. The American Statistician 61.3 (2007): 198-200. Web.

Taleb, Nassim Nicholas. The Black Swan. New York: Random House, 2007. Print.

Westfall, Peter H, and Joseph M Hilbe. 'The Black Swan'. The American Statistician 61.3 (2007): 193-194. Web.

The Relationship between Human and Nature in Beethoven's Symphony No. 6

Beethoven completed his Symphony no. 6, Pastoral, in 1808 summer, in Weisenthal, a rural resort by the Danube back then, close to Heiligenstadt, an oasis of beauty and sound in the middle of nature. The declared purpose of the symphony, however, is not to portray the beauty of nature, as one would expect, but to make the listener experience it, live it actively.

As shown throughout the five parts of the symphony, man and nature cannot and should not be isolated from one another, but rather live in communion. While Nature is splendid and powerful, Man's perfection lies in his vulnerability and force of endurance.   

For the premiere concert, the composer entitled the symphony Recollections of Country Life. Everyone expected it to be Beethoven's masterpiece, so the audience received this first performance with a slight disappointment. However, enthusiasm increased over time, to such an extent that the Pastoral received numerous interpretations and has been and continues to be played in numerous symphony halls around the world.

Its motto is simplicity, and it becomes obvious in structure, melody, harmony and modulation alike. This quality is vital for creating the "rustic" atmosphere dominating the composition. Beethoven himself warned that his purpose was to express the feelings nature inspires, not to paint landscapes or produce descriptive music. This was a huge and brave step for that time, when tone art and its spiritual mission were so little understood.

Due to the insertion of the "Storm", the Symphony no. 6 has five movements instead of four, as follows:

I. Allegro - Expression of the cheerful feelings inspired by the arrival in the country;

II. Andante - Brook scene;

III. Allegro - The rustic dance;

IV. Allegro – The thunderstorm;

V. Allegretto – The song of the shepherd and the happiness of seeing the storm subside.

No introduction is available or necessary. The symphony begins directly with the first movement and the main theme. Instead of a description of the countryside, the audience is invited to exhale the invigorating fresh air of the forests and meadows.

Each of the four distinct figures used brings its contribution to the scroll's movement: (1) the succession of the eighths and of the sixteenths in the second measure; (2) the uniformity of the eighths from the subordinate theme; (3) the Codetta's cadence; and (4) the reduction of the last group to uniform triplets.

These four figures, so similar and so different at the same time, appear to mimic Nature's rhythm, constantly changing, yet similar, and play an important part in defining the "rural" atmosphere created and sustained by the Movement. This movement has nothing descriptive in it.

The second one, however, reflects (without depicting), the murmur of the forest, of the brook referred to in the title. It is cast in the sonata-allegro form as well, and its length is quite unusual. Instead of being painted an image, the audience is encouraged to imagine, to actually live the brook's murmur, the forest's rustle, and the curiously fragmented but melodious birds' call. One has to imagine feeling the wood's odors and soothing magic. As mentioned, Beethoven's purpose is not to depict, but to express his emotions subjectively.

The most realistic part of this movement is the bird-trio (cuckoo, quail and nightingale) ending it, an innocent but acknowledged pleasantry of the composer: the slightly indefinite rhythm and pitch gives Beethoven the chance to militate for the perfection and playfulness of Nature even in its most imperfect sounds.

In an illustrative piece, the audience could be disappointed, but when actively engaged, as in Symphony no. 6, the audience can only live and enjoy this ending trio. It may have been initially meant as a joke, but this part seems to have actually caught the composer's attention, as he literally repeated it.

The third movement of the symphony is a Scherzo. It is quite "descriptive", but it is important to remember that it is dedicated to an inherent musical subject - the rustic dance. Beethoven occasionally spreads it with direct realism touches, represented by delicious, comical suggestions of the peasant-musicians' technical limitations. The movement has quite a large form that includes two distinct, successive trios, followed by a da capo shortened by the impending thunderstorm's rumbling.

In the fourth movement, Beethoven is forced to remain purely realistic in his music, to offer approximate, convenient means of imitation for thunder's roll, the wind's wailing and storm's tumult. These means enable him to accentuate nature's power and give the audience the chance to actually live and feel its sounds.

While listening to a purely descriptive piece would feel like hearing thunder and the wind from indoors, perhaps sitting in front of the fireplace, listening to Beethoven's fragment feels like being actually caught in the middle of the storm, feeling its fire and coldness at the same time.

If descriptive tendencies could still be identified before this movement, this is where they cease. This part, containing most of the measures, remains pure emotional suggestion, the ultimate expression and justification of the symphony's title - Pastoral.

It is important to note that Beethoven uses drums only in order to render the thunderstorm, in the fourth movement. He also adds two trombones and a piccolo, the trombones being kept through the Finale. With their help, the audience is invited to feel the thunder's crash, the rain's swishing, the wind's howling and even the lightening (through the piccolo).

The advancement and recession of nature's elements is unfolded in the carefully mastered succession and through carefully chosen proportions, without ever altering the tone-beauty perception.

As expected, this movement does not have a specific structure and design; it is formed of thirteen sections, many of them repetitions of previous ones. While some brief "motives" can be found in this movement, no actual "themes" can be attributed to it.

In the fifth movement, the storm subsides gradually. The pipe of a shepherd is heard, resembling the Swiss Alps Ranz des vaches, answered soon after by another and another call. The last call becomes the dominating theme of the good-natured, wholesome, hearty Finale. Beethoven uses the third rondo-form for this part, and, although the last movement is quite long and even drawn out, it shares a feeling of unalloyed, engaging beauty.

The Pastoral also emphasizes Beethoven's perception and use of repetition, evidently conditioned by his "pastoral" scheme's nature. In order to understand it, it is enough to: compare, for instance, the first movement measures from sixteen to twenty-five; notice the six consecutive presentations of the subordinate theme's first phrase; compare the second section with the fourth section of the development, starting from the first rhythmic figure from the series of four cited above. The bass-part melody seems to weigh the most, thematically speaking, in the subordinate theme.

While Beethoven's perception of Nature, his awe when faced with its beauty and power, is obvious, there is a little more to be said about the Human element. There are two instances to consider: Man, as the active listener, the person living and enjoying the symphony, and Man as a character in the symphony, part of the events Beethoven brings to life.

The composer expects his audience to give up preconceived ideas, leave expectations aside, close their eyes and live the symphony. They should be able to forget about everything else and dive in the excitement brought to life by the rhythm and sound.

They should be able to hear the singing of the birds, the untamed wailing of the wind and the unforgiving roll of the thunder. They are also expected to fraternize with the rustic dancers, rejoice in the song of the shepherds and embrace the healing heat of the sun as the thunderstorm passes.

As for the symphony's characters, they allow the composer to underline, on one hand, Man's vulnerability and imperfection in front of nature, and, on the other hand, his resistance to challenge. The dancers and the singers are quite clumsy, although funny in their performance, and, while the scene is a joyful one, ends up by confirming nature's power over everything else, including human life - the gathering is interrupted by the thunderstorm.

However,  as the storm subsides, the shepherds remind the audience that, no matter how tough the challenges Life and Nature throw his way, man always finds a way to overcome them - the shepherd's song announces the end of the storm and the rising of the sun.

While the performance can greatly influence the way the audience understands Beethoven's intentions and feelings, his undying love for Nature and the active role he grants to the Human element are undeniable.

Confucianism - More Than Tradition, A Way Of Life

Confucianism, the philosophical and ethical system named after and based on the teachings of Confucius, the Chinese philosopher who lived between 551 and 479 BCE, is presented in a detailed and comprehensive manner in professor Xinzhong Yao's book, An Introduction to Confucianism.

The work covers not only the history and evolution of Confucianism, but also its teachings, the way of life it promotes, representing a valuable guide for those who want to live by the ideas and principles of Confucius.

Just like the Bible is the manual of all Christians, professor Xinzhong Yao's work could be considered a manual, a useful guide for all Confucianists, the go-to resource for those trying to fiind their path to peace and happiness.

As the author himself warns, Confucianism is not just a tradition, it is a way of life, a path towards physical and spiritual accomplishments whose following requires full commitment and desire to improve oneself. The harmony, the peace and the fulfillment awaiting those who follow this path can only be achieved through continuous learning, sacrifice, balance and virtuosity.

An Introduction to Confucianism makes it easy to understand the Confucian tradition and ethics through its well organized content, structured on five chapters. The first one defines Confucianism and presents it characteristics. It focuses on the philosopher and on the way he contributed to the tradition bearing his name, but also covers the origins and the nature of the Confucian tradition of the West.

According to Confucian understanding, the world is sustained by, and structured around, three ultimate powers (sanji), often referred to as universe's powers (sancai). These are heaven (tian), earth (di) and humans (rens), and they work together, making it possible for Heaven, Earth and humans to be the origin of everything (139). Heaven is the one that generates things, Earth is the one that nourishes them, and man is the one that perfects them.

The second chapter offers a historical perspective of Confucianism's evolution, presenting the major schools and the leaders that made the development and spreading of Confucianism possible, from its very beginnings to our days. It analyzes the common and distinctive elements of each school, their heritage, considering them necessary steps in the evolution and transformation of Confucianism. Geographically, it covers mostly the contribution of the Chinese, Korean and Japanese Confucian leaders and scholars, overlooking areas like Southeast Asia and Vietnam.

The third chapter presents the Confucian doctrine, and its Three Ways: Heaven's Way, Humans's Way and Harmony's Way. Heaven's way is the most important one, the Confucian path towards the metaphysical, the transcendental, the ethical, the natural, the religious and the political. Humans' Way ensures the understanding and implementation of Heaven's Way by humans, modelling human nature, teaching moral virtues, promoting social integration, the necessity of political order and of embracing one's destiny.

The Confucian belief relies on the idea that Heaven's Way can only be fulfilled if it is understood and pursued consciously by people throughout their life. Harmony's Way involves harmony between human actions and heaven, between conscious behavior and the environment, between individuals, families and society.

Harmony is more than a central concept, it is the spirit, the power and the life of Confucianism, the reality and the ideal of the Confucian believers. It is achieved by unity between humanity and heaven, it is a stage in which people bring humanity order and peace through their behavior.

Harmony is also conditioned by a continuous relationship between the human and the spiritual, body and mind, matter and form, present and past. It provides a sense of security, continuity and eternity. It points to the transformation of the temporal and of the eternal, of the finite and of the infinite, of the sacred and of the secular, transformation that can be observed in every ritual carried out consciently.

The fourth chapter covers religious practices and rituals that have become part of the Confucian tradition. It shows how the Confucian values have found their place in the lives of the Chinese, Japanese and Koreans, and how the people in these countries inevitably come under the influence of Confucianism. Their thinking is shaped, guided by Confucian values, no matter if they have studied Confucianism or not.

The chapter begins by investigating the Confucian doctrine influences religious practices and rituals and how these practices and rituals reflect the humanistic and rational ideals that the Confucian masters propagate. Confucian practices take the form not only of cults and religious worship, but also of the one of a kind way in which Confucianism embraces self-improvement and learning as its spiritual path.

The Confucian spirituality bears the influence of the Confucianism's interaction with other traditions, like Buddhism, Daoism or Christianity. This interaction has lead to the transformation of Confucianism and of other traditions alike.

The fifth chapter traces the evolution of Confucianism and deals with the problems that modern Confucian scholars face. It examines the ‘three generations of modern new Confucians’, as well as the new challenges regarding the Confucian theories and practices, and the responses to these challenges are investigated.

Having survived the influence of the western culture and that of the Communist revolution, Confucianism has returned to life, turning into a real force that motivates modernization and acts as a foundation for the economics, politics and social life of East Asia.

Numerous scholars claim that some modern behavior patterns rely on the Confucian heritage and, through them, Confucianism is heading for a new age. According to them, the creativity associated with Confucianism is not limited only to Eastern Asia, but offers answers to universal and eternal problems and concerns of the humanity.

After critically examining suggestions and facts, after weighing the efforts of the modern eastern and western scholars to consolidate Confucianism, the author concludes that Confucianism is under no circumstances a tradition of the past. It is a revived tradition that has gained the strength necessary to offer values and guidance to those who want to live a healthy, harmonious life in the modern age.

The Confucian Way of Life

For Confucianists, Heaven means more than just the opposite of Earth, it represents the entire universe, the material and immaterial world, Nature and divinity at the same time. The term is often used referring to a Supreme Being, an anthropomorphic Lord ruling Heaven andgoverning both the material and the spiritual world.

From a moral perspective, Heaven is the source of both the ethic principles people should live by, and of the sanctions they should expect when failing to apply those principles. It can be identified with European philosophy's Natural Law. Heaven's Way, with all its meanings and principles, can be considered the foundation of the Confucian views regarding the universe, the world and the human society, embracing, at the same time, a religious dimension.

Heaven is the divine being who controls and determines the human world (Yao 143), the creator of humanity, its observer, and judge, similar to Christians' God. It is the "creator of humans", whose spirits return to it upon their death. Those who do not obey his word receive their punishment sooner or later, and those who live by his teachings will be rewarded at a certain point. Offending Heaven or violating its moral principles is the greatest wrongdoing one could be responsible of (Yao 146).

Heaven's Way, with all its values and implications, can be understood by continuous studies and efforts. By learning as much as possible about the world around them and about themselves, people can improve themselves, give up any vices and vanitudes, and live a balanced and peaceful life.

This kind of education and instruction will lead them to truth, goodness and perfection, to sincerity and personal integrity, responsibility and family loyalty, sound commonsense and communal reciprocity. "The Way of Heaven signifies morality, and to follow the Way of Heaven is to lead a virtuous life" (Yao 148).

Confucians do not care about the differences between this world and the next, they do not care about damnation or salvation, but they strive to close the gap between the non-human and the human, between those who have been educated to adopt proper behaviour and those who have not been.

That is why self-cultivation and education stand are the main focus of the Human Way, the only way to exploit the potential of each person to grow and differentiate oneself from animals. Cultivation involves preservation, and preservation means developing moral senses, becoming fully human, but never abandoning or neglecting, behavior patterns specific to deficient characters that are not far from the animal kind. In Confucianism, the virtuos and the moral is identified with the religious or the transcendental (Yao 155).

Sacrifice and religious rituals are an important part of the Confucian tradition as well. Offering sacrifices to Heaven and the ancestors was believed to be of the greatest significance for earning the legitimacy and power to rule. In time, this practice lead to the understanding that power and abilities should also be cultivated, thus becoming "a moral-making property of a person" able to give that person power and influence over the others and, in some cases, even over nonhuman surroundings (155).

Thus, religious rituals turn into behavior codes and a sense of propriety. They are necessary, not only at the moment of the sacrifice, but in one's everyday life and not only for the ruler, but also the average person as well.

Confucians have developed an understanding of the source and nature of political power according to which "a good ruler is the one who cultivates his character sincerely, performs rituals reverentially, and accumulates good deeds earnestly" (155). This way, propriety rules become "imperatives of conduct", and their observance is internalised as moral quality, while exteriorly exercised practice equals an interior spiritual journey.

The ethical and the moral in Confucianism as a tradition have become synonym with the the transcendental and the religious. Virtue has turned from a quality into the ability to improve oneself and others. Being a virtuous person is not the privilege of rulers or superior ministers, but a mandatory condition for personal transition from the uncivilized, crude man to a civilized and cultivated person, or "from a being of sensation to a person of virtue" (Yao 157).

And, yes, the Confucian tradition does take into account natural weaknesses like the preference for sexual enjoyment, the pursue of wealth and the difficulties that surpassing these weaknesses involves. Man has what it takes to be good, to improve himself and become virtuos, but this substrate is overwhelmed by physical needs and must be discovered and nurtured.

There are two methods to achieve this and Pursue the Way of Heaven. "One is to observe the principles by which everything exists and every being lives. The other way is to contemplate on our own heart/mind" (158). Thus, reflecting and meditating on the internal world enables us to understand and use our potential.

Confucianism accepts the notion of evil as well, but with no ontological or metaphysical reality attached to it. Evil is just a moral concept, designates a situation in which the physical and moral activities of a person are conducted in the wrong direction. Evil, just like good, is a term referring to the moral character of a person. Confucians focus on the importance of knowing what is good and what is evil, how to do good and how to remove evil.

Family is a central concept in the Confucian tradition as well, with a tendency towards patriarchy. Children should be raised in piety, taught to obey their parents above all, to love their mothers and follow their fathers. Men and women are taught to divide work within the household, to avoid violent conflicts and to strive together to improve themselves and raise their children in virtue.

It is impossible not to notice the importance granted to filial piety, but. It is suggested that being older and more experienced, the parent, especially the father, knows better, and it is the son's duty to obey and follow on his footsteps. The father on the other hand, should be kind and affectionate to his child. Families should stick together, support one another and help one another on the path to Heaven and Harmony (Yao 183-184).

Ritual understanding and spiritual cultivation practice underline the uniqueness of the Confucian religiosity. Confucianism's co-existence with other traditions has enabled its adepts to engage in dynamic dialogues with many different doctrines, enriching their religio-ethics and cultivating a syncretic culture. Their rituals combine music and dance with offerings and sacrifices, with the purpose to please ancestors and spirits, expressing commitment and gratitude.

During rituals, "faults are repented, confidence gained, and happiness and success secured" (Yao 192). Sacrifice is not imposed from the outside, but stems from the heart, and only "those of virtue can fulfil this condition and fully display the meaning and purpose of ritual and sacrifice" (194). While sacrifice is believed to bring about luck, material gains, physical longevity or spiritual protection, personal gain is not a goal for Confucianists.

They should be offered without immediate and egocentric interests in mind, rituals being just a manifestation of virtue and of the meaning of life. In the end, with patience and perseverance, by living humbly and virtuously, by continuously striving to improve oneself and help others improve, one will attain harmony.

Confucianism is tradition, philosophy, religion and way of life at the same time, too complex to describe and explain in a limited number of words, and, as professor Xinzhong Yao shows, it is in constant evolution and development, adjusting to the new times and changing to meet the needs and expectations of its adepts. In order to understand it, one must adehere to its teachings, embrace it and live it, get a taste of the virtues and harmony it promotes.